Everything about Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz totally explained
Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz (
May 28 1807—
December 14 1873) was a
Swiss-
American zoologist,
glaciologist, and
geologist, the husband of educator
Elizabeth Cabot Cary Agassiz, and one of the first world-class American scientists.
Early life and education
Louis Agassiz was born in Môtier (now part of
Haut-Vully) in the
canton of Fribourg,
Switzerland. Educated first at home, then spending four years of secondary school in
Bienne, he completed his elementary studies in
Lausanne. Having adopted medicine as his profession, he studied successively at the universities of
Zürich,
Heidelberg and
Munich; while there he extended his knowledge of
natural history, especially of
botany. In
1829 he received the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy at
Erlangen, and in
1830 that of
doctor of medicine at Munich. Moving to
Paris he fell under the tutelage of
Alexander von Humboldt and
Georges Cuvier, who launched him on his careers of geology and zoology respectively. Until shortly before this time he'd paid no special attention to the study of
ichthyology, which soon afterwards became the great occupation of his life, if not the one for which he's most remembered in the modern day. On the other hand, Agassiz was also openly a
racist and an early supporter of
Apartheid (s. Hans Faessler, "Reisen in Schwarz-Weiss", Rotpunkt Zurich 2005, ISBN 3-85869-0).
Early work
In 1819-1820,
Johann Baptist von Spix and
Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius were engaged in an expedition to
Brazil, and on their return to Europe, amongst other collections of natural objects they brought home an important set of the
fresh water fish of
Brazil, and especially of the
Amazon River. Spix, who died in
1826, didn't live long enough to work out the history of these fish, and Agassiz (though fresh out of school) was selected by Martius for this purpose. He at once threw himself into the work with an enthusiasm which characterized him to the end of his busy life. The task of describing the Brazilian fish was completed and published in
1829. This was followed by research into the history of the fish found in
Lake Neuchâtel. Enlarging his plans, in
1830 he issued a prospectus of a
History of the Freshwater Fish of Central Europe. It was only in
1839, however, that the first part of this publication appeared, and it was completed in
1842. In
1832 he was appointed professor of natural history in the
University of Neuchâtel. The
fossil fish there soon attracted his attention. The fossil-rich stones furnished by the
slates of
Glarus and the
limestones of Monte
Bolca were known at the time, but very little had been accomplished in the way of scientific study of them. Agassiz, as early as 1829, planned the publication of the work which, more than any other, laid the foundation of his world-wide fame. Five volumes of his
Recherches sur les poissons fossiles ("Research on Fossil Fish") appeared at intervals from
1833 to
1843. They were magnificently illustrated, chiefly by
Joseph Dinkel. In gathering materials for this work Agassiz visited the principal museums in Europe, and meeting Cuvier in Paris, he received much encouragement and assistance from him. They had known him for seven years at the time.
Agassiz found that his palaeontological labours made necessary a new basis of ichthyological classification. The fossils rarely exhibited any traces of the soft tissues of fish. They consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales and fins, even the bones being perfectly preserved in comparatively few instances. He therefore adopted a classification which divided fish into four groups: Ganoids, Placoids, Cycloids and Ctenoids, based on the nature of the scales and other dermal appendages. While Agassiz did much to place the subject on a scientific basis, this classification has been superseded by later work.
As Agassiz's descriptive work proceeded, it became obvious that it would over-tax his resources unless financial assistance could be found. The
British Association came to his aid, and the
Earl of Ellesmere — then
Lord Francis Egerton — gave him yet more efficient help. The 1,290 original drawings made for the work were purchased by the Earl, and presented by him to the
Geological Society of London. In
1836 the
Wollaston Medal was awarded to Agassiz by the council of that society for his work on fossil ichthyology; and in
1838 he was elected a foreign member of the
Royal Society. Meanwhile
invertebrate animals engaged his attention. In
1837 he issued the "Prodrome" of a monograph on the recent and fossil
Echinodermata, the first part of which appeared in
1838; in 1839-1840 he published two quarto volumes on the fossil Echinoderms of Switzerland; and in
1840-
1845 he issued his
Etudes critiques sur les mollusques fossiles ("Critical Studies on Fossil
Mollusks").
Before his first visit to
England in
1834, the labours of
Hugh Miller and other geologists brought to light the remarkable fish of the
Old Red Sandstone of the northeast of
Scotland. The strange forms of the
Pterichthys, the
Coccosteus and other
genera were then made known to geologists for the first time. They were of intense interest to Agassiz, and formed the subject of a special monograph by him published in
1844-
1845:
Monographie des poissons fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge, ou Systeme Devonien (Old Red Sandstone) des Iles Britanniques et de Russie ("Monograph on Fossil Fish of the Old Red Sandstone, or Devonian System of the British Isles and of Russia").
In the early stages of his career in Neuchatel, Agassiz also made a name for himself as a man who could run a scientific department well. Under his care, the University of Neuchâtel soon became a leading institution for scientific inquiry.
Proposal of an ice age
In 1837 Agassiz was the first to scientifically propose that the Earth had been subject to a past
ice age.
Prior to this
de Saussure,
Venetz,
Jean de Charpentier,
Karl Friedrich Schimper and others had made the
glaciers of the
Alps the subjects of special study, and Charpentier as well as Schimper In it he discussed the movements of the glaciers, their
moraines, their influence in grooving and rounding the rocks over which they travelled, and in producing the striations and
roches moutonnees seen in Alpine-style landscapes. He not only accepted Charpentier's and Schimper's idea that some of the alpine glaciers had extended across the wide plains and valleys drained by the Aar and the
Rhône, but he went still farther. He concluded that, in the relatively recent past,
Switzerland had been another
Greenland; that instead of a few glaciers stretching across the areas referred to, one vast sheet of ice, originating in the higher Alps, had extended over the entire valley of northwestern Switzerland until it reached the southern slopes of the Jura, which, though they checked and deflected its further extension, didn't prevent the ice from reaching in many places the summit of the range. The publication of this work gave a fresh impetus to the study of glacial phenomena in all parts of the world.
Thus familiarized with the phenomena associated with the movements of recent glaciers, Agassiz was prepared for a discovery which he made in 1840, in conjunction with
William Buckland. The two visited the mountains of
Scotland together, and found in different locations clear evidence of ancient glacial action. The discovery was announced to the Geological Society of London in successive communications. The mountainous districts of
England,
Wales, and
Ireland were also considered to constitute centres for the dispersion of glacial debris; and Agassiz remarked "that great sheets of ice, resembling those now existing in Greenland, once covered all the countries in which unstratified gravel (boulder drift) is found; that this gravel was in general produced by the trituration of the sheets of ice upon the subjacent surface, etc."
Relocation to the United States
In
1842-
1846 he issued his
Nomenclator Zoologicus, a classified list, with references, of all names employed in zoology for genera and groups — a work of great labour and research. With the aid of a grant of money from the King of
Prussia, Agassiz crossed the
Atlantic in the autumn of 1846 with the twin purposes of investigating the natural history and geology of
North America and delivering a course of lectures on zoology, by invitation from
J. A. Lowell, at the
Lowell Institute in
Boston,
Massachusetts. The financial and scientific advantages presented to him in the
United States induced him to settle there, where he remained to the end of his life. He was appointed professor of zoology and geology at
Harvard University in
1847 where he founded the
Museum of Comparative Zoology in 1859 and served as the museum's first director until his death in 1873. During his tenure at Harvard, he was, among many other things, an early student of the effect of the last Ice Age on North America.
Agassiz served as a non-resident lecturer at
Cornell while also being on faculty at Harvard. In
1852 he accepted a medical professorship of
comparative anatomy at
Charlestown, Massachusetts, but he resigned in two years. From this time his scientific studies dropped off, but he was a profound influence on the American branches of his two fields, teaching decades worth of future prominent scientists, including
David Starr Jordan,
Joel Asaph Allen,
Joseph Le Conte,
Ernest Ingersoll,
Nathaniel Shaler,
Samuel Hubbard Scudder,
Alpheus Packard, and his son
Alexander Agassiz, among others. He had a profound impact on the paleontologist
Charles Doolittle Walcott. In return his name appears attached to several species, as well as here and there throughout the American landscape, notably
Lake Agassiz, the
Pleistocene precursor to
Lake Winnipeg and the
Red River.
During this time he grew in fame even in the public consciousness, becoming one of the best-known scientists in the world. By
1857 he was so well-loved that Longfellow wrote "The fiftieth birthday of Agassiz" in his honour. His own writing continued with four (of a planned ten) volumes of
Natural History of the United States which were published from 1857 to
1862. During this time he also published a catalog of papers in his field,
Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae, in four volumes between
1848 and
1854.
Stricken by ill health in the
1860s, he resolved to return to the field partly for relaxation, and partly to take up his studies of Brazilian fishes once again. In April
1865 he led a party to Brazil
(External Link
). Returning home in August
1866, an account of this expedition, entitled
A Journey in Brazil, was published in
1868. In
1871 he made a second excursion, visiting the southern shores of North America, both on its Atlantic and its Pacific seaboards.
Legacies
In 1863, Agassiz's daughter Ida married
Henry Lee Higginson, later to be founder of the
Boston Symphony Orchestra and benefactor to
Harvard University and other schools.
In the last years of his life, Agassiz worked to establish a permanent school where zoological science could be pursued amid the living subjects of its study. In 1873, a private philanthropist (John Anderson) gave Agassiz the island of
Penikese, in
Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts (south of
New Bedford), and presented him with $50,000 to permanently endow it as a practical school of natural science, especially devoted to the study of marine zoology. The John Anderson school collapsed soon after Agassiz's death, but is considered a precursor of the
Marine Biological Laboratory, which is nearby.
Agassiz is remembered today for his theories on ice ages, and for his resistance to
Charles Darwin's theories on evolution, which he kept up his entire life. He died in
Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1873 and was buried at
Mount Auburn Cemetery. His monument is a boulder selected from the moraine of the glacier of the Aar near the site of the old
Hotel des Neuchatelois, not far from the spot where his hut once stood; and the pine-trees that shelter his grave were sent from his old home in Switzerland.
The Cambridge elementary school north of Harvard University was named in his honor and the surrounding neighborhood became known as "Agassiz" as a result. The school's name was changed to the
Maria L. Baldwin school on May 21, 2002, in honor of the African-American principal of the school who served from 1889 until 1922. The neighborhood, however, continues to be known as Agassiz.
(External Link)
An ancient glacial lake that formed in the Great Lakes region of North America,
Lake Agassiz, is named after him, as are
Mount Agassiz in
California's Palisades,
Mount Agassiz, Utah, in the Uinta Mountains, and
Agassiz Peak in Arizona. A crater on Mars and a promontorium on the Moon are also named in his honour.
Several animal species, such as
Apistogramma agassizi (Agassiz's dwarf cichlid),
Isocapnia agassizi (Agassiz snowfly), and
Gopherus agassizii (desert tortoise).
In 2005 the
EGU Division on Cryospheric Sciences established the Louis Agassiz Medal, awarded to individuals in recognition of their outstanding scientific contribution to the study of the cryosphere on Earth or elsewhere in the solar system.
He took part in a monthly gathering called the Saturday Club at the
Omni Parker House, a meeting of Boston writers and intellectuals. He was therefore mentioned in a stanza of the
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. poem, "At the Saturday Club," where the author dreams he sees some of his friends who are no longer:
"There, at the table's further end I see
In his old place our Poet's vis-à-vis,
The great PROFESSOR, strong, broad-shouldered, square,
In life's rich noontide, joyous, debonair.
His social hour no leaden care alloys,
His laugh rings loud and mirthful as a boy's,--
That lusty laugh the Puritan forgot,--
What ear has heard it and remembers not?
How often, halting at some wide crevasse
Amid the windings of his Alpine pass,
High up the cliffs, the climbing mountaineer,
Listening the far-off avalanche to hear,
Silent, and leaning on his steel-shod staff,
Has heard that cheery voice, that ringing laugh,
From the rude cabin whose nomadic walls
Creep with the moving glacier as it crawls!
How does vast Nature lead her living train
In ordered sequence through that spacious brain,
As in the primal hour when Adam named
The new-born tribes that young creation claimed!--
How will her realm be darkened, losing thee,
Her darling, whom we call our AGASSIZ!"
Racial classification scheme and racism
After Agassiz came to the United States he became a prolific writer in what has been later termed the genre of
scientific racism. Agassiz was specifically a believer and advocate in
polygenism, that races came from separate origins (specifically separate creations), were endowed with unequal attributes, and could be classified into specific climatic zones, in the same way he felt other animals and plants could be classified.
These included Western American Temperate (the indigenous peoples west of the Rockies); Eastern American Temperate (east of the Rockies); Tropical Asiatic (south of the Himalayas); Temperate Asiatic (east of the Urals and north of the Himalayas); South American Temperate (South America); New Holland (Australia); Arctic (Alaska and Arctic Canada); Cape of Good Hope (South Africa); and American Tropical (Central America and the West Indies).
Agassiz denied that species originated in single pairs, whether at a single location or at many. He argued instead multiple individuals in each species were created at the same time and then distributed throughout the continents where God meant for them to dwell. His lectures on polygenism were popular among the slaveholders in the South, for many this opinion legitimized the belief in a lower standard of the Negro. Interestingly, his stance in this case was considered to be quite radical in its time, because it went against the more orthodox and standard reading of the Bible in his time which implied all human stock descended from a single couple (
Adam and Eve), and in his defense Agassiz often used what now sounds like a very "modern" argument about the need for independence between science and religion; though Agassiz, unlike many polygeneticists, maintained his religious beliefs and wasn't anti-Biblical in general.
Stephen Jay Gould has argued that Agassiz's theories sprang from an initial revulsion in his encounters with
African-Americans upon moving to the United States. Agassiz's racism was by no means unique for his time or context, though his reading of it into a formalized and scientific context gave it a sense of legitimacy, and allowed it to be easily exported to other contexts.
In the context of ethnology and anthropology of the mid-19th century, Agassiz's polygenetic views became explicitly seen as opposing Darwin's views on race, which sought to show the common origin of all human races and the superficiality of racial differences. Darwin's second book on evolution,
The Descent of Man, features extensive argumentation addressing the single origin of the races, at times explicitly opposing Agassiz's theories.
Agassiz's racial theories have, in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, become seen as tarnishing to his scientific record, occasionally prompting the renaming of landmarks, schoolhouses, and other institutions which bear the name of Agassiz (many of which abound in Massachusetts). Opinions on these events are often torn, given his extensive scientific legacy in other areas. On September 9, 2007 the Swiss Federal Council (Government) acknowledged the "racist thinking" of Agassiz but declined to rename the Agassizhorn summit.
Works
- Recherches sur les poissons fossiles (1833-1843)
- History of the Freshwater Fishes of Central Europe (1839-1842)
- Etudes sur les glaciers (1840)
- Etudes critiques sur les mollusques fossiles (1840-1845)
- Nomenclator Zoologicus (1842-1846)
- Monographie des poissons fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge, ou Systeme Devonien (Old Red Sandstone) des Iles Britanniques et de Russie (1844-1845)
- Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae (1848)
- (with AA Gould) Principles of Zoology for the use of Schools and Colleges (Boston, 1848)
- Lake Superior: Its Physical Character, Vegetation and Animals, compared with those of other and similar regions (Boston: Gould, Kendall and Lincoln, 1850)
- Natural History of the United States (Boston: Little, Brown, 1847-1862)
- Geological Sketches ((Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1866)
- A Journey in Brazil (1868)
- De l'espèce et de la classification en zoologie [Essayon classification] (Trans. Felix Vogeli. Paris: Bailière, 1869)
- Geological Sketches (Second Series) (Boston: J.R. Osgood, 1876)
- Essay on Classification, by Louis Agassiz (1962, Cambridge)
Sources
Numbers, Ronald L., "The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design", 2nd ed., 2006.
Early Classics in Biography, Distribution, and Diversity Studies: to 1950.Further Information
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